Primary batteries: Technological evolution, expanding applications, and future outlook

ZHANG Zhuan; LIU Hongyu; WANG Hao; QING Shihong; JIANG Minkang; WANG Liping

doi:10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2025.0971

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Primary batteries: Technological evolution, expanding applications, and future outlook

Special Column of Beyond 500Wh/kg Battery | 更新时间：2026-07-01

- Primary batteries: Technological evolution, expanding applications, and future outlook
- Energy Storage Science and Technology Vol. 15, Issue 4, Pages: 1552-1572(2026)
- 作者机构：
  
  电子科技大学，四川成都 611731
- 作者简介：
- 基金信息：
- DOI：10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2025.0971
  CLC： TM 911
- Received：28 October 2025，
  
  Revised：2025-11-10，
  
  Published：28 April 2026
- 稿件说明：
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张转, 刘鸿宇, 王豪, 等. 一次电池:技术演进、应用拓展与未来展望[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2026, 15(4): 1552-1572.

ZHANG Zhuan, LIU Hongyu, WANG Hao, et al. Primary batteries: Technological evolution, expanding applications, and future outlook[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2026, 15(4): 1552-1572.
张转, 刘鸿宇, 王豪, 等. 一次电池:技术演进、应用拓展与未来展望[J]. 储能科学与技术, 2026, 15(4): 1552-1572. DOI： 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2025.0971.

ZHANG Zhuan, LIU Hongyu, WANG Hao, et al. Primary batteries: Technological evolution, expanding applications, and future outlook[J]. Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2026, 15(4): 1552-1572. DOI： 10.19799/j.cnki.2095-4239.2025.0971.

摘要

自伏打电堆问世以来，一次电池体系不断发展，其凭借高能量密度、长储存寿命和低自放电率，在军事装备、植入式医疗器件、应急电源和极端环境探测中发挥着重要作用。然而，现有一次电池仍存在功率密度不足、电化学可逆性差、回收成本高以及二次化技术不成熟等问题。本文主要介绍锂一次电池和锌一次电池的工作原理、应用场景以及电池性能的提升策略，包括通过正极材料的改性(如体相掺杂、表面包覆及纳米形貌调控)以增强其电子电导率与结构稳定性；同时，通过电解液组分的精准调控(如引入功能性添加剂与优化溶剂化结构)可以改善界面反应动力学，促进离子高效传输。此外，一次电池二次化也是一个重要发展方向，其核心挑战在于固固两相反应动力学缓慢、正极体积膨胀和放电产物(LiF、LiCl)分解能垒高等。通过在正极中引入催化剂降低惰性产物的分解能垒，调控电解液组分以优化离子的溶剂化结构，并构建稳定的电极-电解液界面等，可以实现电池的稳定循环。未来一次电池将向着高功率、高能量密度、绿色回收以及二次化等方向发展。

Abstract

Following the invention of the voltaic pile

primary battery systems have evolved steadily

offering high energy density

long shelf life

and minimal self-discharge rates. These robust features support their applications in military equipment

implantable medical devices

emergency power supply systems

and exploration in extreme environments. Despite their advantages

conventional primary batteries still suffer from limited power capability

poor electrochemical reversibility

high recycling costs

and underdeveloped pathways for rechargeability. This study examines the operating principles and diverse application landscapes of lithium and zinc primary battery systems

highlighting and proposing performance enhancement strategies. Cathode engineering via bulk doping

surface coating

and nanostructural morphology control bolsters electronic conductivity and structural stability. Concurrently

an advanced electrolyte design incorporating functional additives and optimized solvation structures promotes efficient ion transport and the formation of stable electrode-electrolyte interfaces. Another critical research direction involves transitioning these primary battery systems toward secondary (rechargeable) functionality. The fundamental obstacles to achieving reversibility include sluggish solid-solid two-phase reaction kinetics

significant cathode-volume expansion

and the high decomposition barriers of discharge products

including lithium fluoride and lithium chloride. The introduction of catalysts into the cathode architecture accelerates bond cleavage and reformation by lowering the decomposition barriers of inert discharge products. Further

tuning the electrolyte composition effectively enhances interfacial reaction kinetics by optimizing ion-solvation structures. Furthermore

constructing a stable electrode-electrolyte interface buffers volume changes and suppresses parasitic reactions

thereby enabling stable cycling. Looking ahead

the trajectory of primary battery development is expected to shift toward higher power and energy densities

reliable operations across extreme temperature gradients

greener recycling protocols

and practical rechargeability.

关键词

Keywords

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